I really love the Federation starship design lineage, and love seeing how it all connects across the centuries of Trek history. This includes designs that at first may not seem copacetic with the rest, like the Starfleet vessels in Discovery. This is my attempt at a partly-speculative, mostly-canon history of human/Starfleet starship design.

I originally put this together in this infographic to post on /r/StarTrekStarships but have reformatted it for text.

I chose to leave the XCV-330 out because we really don't know where it fits in the timeline. Ostensibly it is a warp capable ship, but Into Darkness has it placed before the Phoenix in a chronological display. There's nothing to go off of.

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EARTH STARFLEET DESIGN ERA

CIRCA 2063–2160

This is an era of expansion for humanity as they first venture out into deep space. Starship designs of this era are primarily influenced directly by Dr. Zefram Cochrane's Phoenix and traditional spacecraft design.

Distinguishing characteristics of this design era include exposed metallic hull plating, primitive iterations of familiar design elements, exposed deflector dishes, round nacelles

EXAMPLES

FRIENDSHIP 1

NX-ALPHA/BETA/GAMMA

SS CONESTOGA

SARAJEVO-TYPE

EMMETTE-TYPE

WARP DELTA / NEPTUNE-CLASS

INTREPID-TYPE

FREEDOM-CLASS

NX-CLASS

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• Dr. Zefram Cochrane breaks the warp barrier aboard the Phoenix in 2063, launching an era of human expansion into the stars
• Only four years later, the arrival of the Vulcans and the goal of space exploration has begun to unify the globe. By 2067, the United Earth Space Probe Agency already exists, and launches Friendship 1, Earth's first warp-capable deep space probe.
• It is only another two years before the unaffiliated civilian colony ship SS Conestoga launches in 2069. The design appears makeshift, two Cochrane-style warp nacelles retrofitted to a hull derived from the earlier sublight DY-type transports. It is likely this is also around the time when the colony seen in The Masterpiece Society departed, as their descendants were unaware of transporters.
• While the first Lunar colonies were being founded around the turn of the century, the Emmette-type enters service as the earliest known large-scale, warp-capable starship. Likely used primarily for intra-system travel, especially between Earth and Mars. The Emmette-type still uses chemical-based rocket propulsion at sublight speeds (as seen in the ENT intro).
• The "warp delta" appears to have been developed from the earlier Emmette-type test-bed as part of continued developments in warp drive and impulse engine research.
• The Warp Five Complex is dedicated by Zefram Cochrane in 2119. Dr. Henry Archer and his team begin work on the next generation of Earth's warp drive. The NX-Alpha and its later iterations are used as the primary research and development test-beds for warp drive development.
• The Sarajevo-type transport's earliest known appearance is 2154, but it may have existed earlier. Its unique design and integrated nacelles suggest it may be an unaffiliated civilian transport rather than a Starfleet vessel. It may represent the pinnacle of early warp 1-2 drives being made available for civilian use.
• The Intrepid-type represents Starfleet's earliest known iteration toward the now-familiar primary hull, perhaps as the necessity of keeping distance between the warp engines and the bulk of the crew for safety became more apparent. The Intrepid's Cochrane/Archer-type nacelles are significantly larger than its contemporaries, suggesting it was used to test newer, more powerful engines.
• The Freedom-class is noted as Earth's first warp 4-capable starship. It is a very small ship, possibly one that had been under MACO command prior to being folded into Starfleet. It should be noted that the design seen here is probably not the ship's original appearance, as it may have been refit during the Earth-Romulan War.
• The Earth Starfleet Design Era culminates in the NX-class starship, the ultimate peak of pre-Federation human starship design, and the first human starship to achieve warp factor 5, thereby finally giving humans access to deep space at reasonable rates of travel.

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EARLY STARFLEET DESIGN ERA

CIRCA 2161–2270

As of the founding of the United Federation of Planets in 2161, Earth Starfleet has been folded into the newly-founded Federation Starfleet. Starships capable of velocities up to warp 7 are becoming common, and the venerable NX-class is being decommissioned.

Distinguishing characteristics of this design era include metallic hulls in varying finishes and levels of armor, continued use of Cochrane/Archer-style nacelles in the main production line of starships, exposed but protected and heavier-duty deflector dishes, and experimentation with new materials, layouts, and engine designs. This century sees an explosion in Starfleet R&D as new technologies and techniques from Federation member worlds like VULCAN, ANDORIA, and TELLAR PRIME are tested, developed, and integrated into existing Starfleet technology.

EXAMPLES

NX REFIT

DAEDALUS-CLASS

CONSTITUTION-CLASS

KELCIE MAE-TYPE

ARCHER-TYPE

FARRAGUT-TYPE

WALKER-CLASS

MALACHOWSKI-CLASS

CARDENAS-CLASS

HIAWATHA-TYPE

NIMITZ-CLASS

SHEPARD-CLASS

CROSSFIELD-CLASS

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• The NX-01 Enterprise is decommissioned in 2161. At some point, it is refit with more powerful warp engines necessitating a secondary hull slung beneath the primary hull, connected by a neck. This would become a mainstay characteristic of Federation starships for at least a century.
  • NOTE: There is a discrepancy in the timing of the NX-01 refit. The finale of STAR TREK ENTERPRISE states that the NX-01 was decommissioned in 2161, in which the final episode takes place, yet the ship still has its original body. It is possible that the ship was recommissioned after the founding of the Federation, refit, and rechristened the USS Enterprise (as it is named in the 25th century Fleet Museum). It is also possible Commander Riker's holodeck program is inaccurate.
• This design era marks the beginning of several distinct efforts by Starfleet to branch out and experiment with new ship and engine technology after a century of iterating on the designs of Dr. Zefram Cochrane and Dr. Henry Archer.
• Among the first of these experiments is the Daedalus-class starship. While still making use of standard Cochrane/Archer-type warp engines, it marks a radical departure from previous starship layouts. The NX Refit's secondary hull is expanded to a large cylinder, and the primary hull is made spherical. The Daedalus-class was among the first starship classes fielded by the newly-formed United Federation of Planets — the USS Essex, under the command of Captain Bryce Shumar, is lost with all hands in 2167, only six years after the founding of the Federation. The Daedalus-class is retired by 2196
• By the 2220s, Starfleet has launched the Walker-class starship as a test-bed for new engine development. In a nod to its experimental nature, the ship's design evolves directly out of the lineage of the NX-01. The Walker-class includes a prototype nacelle design not featured on any other starship class.
• Starfleet's main production line of starships continues iterating from the noble lineage of the NX-01, with the NX Refit evolving directly into the Constitution-class starship, launched in the 2240s. In 2245, the USS Enterprise NCC-1701 is launched.
• ​At the same time Starfleet is developing the Constitution-class and its derivatives in the 2230s, other starships are developed as testing platforms for new ideas in space-frames, hull materials, layouts, and engine design, possibly utilizing new technologies and techniques adapted from Starfleet member worlds. Ships like the Cardenas-class, Malachowski-class, Shepard-class, and Nimitz-class lay the groundwork for centuries of future starship design to come.
• The Cochrane/Archer warp nacelle design has reached a development plateau, having achieved incredible speed and power as seen with the Constitution-class and its design contemporaries, the Farragut-type and Archer-type starships.
• The Kelcie Mae-type starship demonstrates a wild departure from typical Starfleet design, mixing a standard Cochrane/Archer nacelle with a body plan possibly influenced by similar Vulcan or Andorian starship designs.
• The Early Starfleet Design Era is closed by the Crossfield-class starship, considered new and impressive in 2256. Outfitted with advanced technology, the Crossfield-class was specifically designed as a scientific test-bed for new propulsion technologies. The project's failure and loss with all hands of the only two known ships of the class led to its design being abandoned.

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MODERN STARFLEET DESIGN ERA

CIRCA 2270–PRESENT

Following the completion of Captain James T. Kirk's five-year mission aboard the USS Enterprise, Starfleet begins a major fleet overhaul program to integrate new technologies and techniques into their starship designs.

Distinguishing characteristics of this design era include advanced hull materials, integrated and illuminated deflector dishes, standardized photon torpedo launchers, and transitional phases between old and new technology as devices like phasers and warp drives are perfected.

EXAMPLES

CONSTITUTION II-CLASS

MIRANDA-CLASS

OBERTH-CLASS

EXCELSIOR-CLASS

AMBASSADOR-CLASS

CONSTELLATION-CLASS

CALIFORNIA-CLASS

GALAXY-CLASS

DEFIANT-CLASS

PROMETHEUS-CLASS

INTREPID-CLASS

SOVEREIGN-CLASS

AKIRA-CLASS

STEAMRUNNER-CLASS

SABER-CLASS

LUNA-CLASS

PROTOSTAR-CLASS

ODYSSEY-CLASS

EXCELSIOR II-CLASS

SAGAN-CLASS

CONSTITUTION III-CLASS

INQUIRY-CLASS

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• The Modern Starfleet Design Era is inaugurated in the 2270s by the launch of the refit USS Enterprise NCC-1701, retroactively classified as a Constitution II-class starship. The refit Enterprise leaves behind the reliable Cochrane/Archer-style warp nacelles that had been standard for two centuries. Its newer, slimmer, squared-off engine design suggests a design evolution derived from the experimental nacelles tested on Early Design Era starships.
• Like the original Constitution-class Enterprise, the refit's new design elements are carried over to its contemporaries, like the Miranda-class, whose design also evokes the Nimitz-class seen earlier.
• Starfleet once again experiments with radical starship body plans, using a unique split design in the Oberth-class science vessel, perhaps for crew safety.
• By 2285, the USS Excelsior NX-2000 is launched as a test-bed for yet another refinement in starship propulsion. The ultimate success of this project leads to the recalibration of Starfleet's warp scale toward much faster velocities. The long, exposed warp coil grills of the Constitution II-class and Excelsior-class starships become the new standard in nacelle design.
• The Constellation-class starship is introduced by 2285, relatively unique with its four nacelle layout hearkening back to the Cardenas-class, and becomes a mainstay of Starfleet. New vessels of the class continue to be launched for at least the next 40 years, such as the USS Stargazer.
• The next 80 years are spent by Starfleet, rather than on further experimentation, on refining and perfecting their existing technologies. The Ambassador-class starship, with its clear lineage from the earlier Excelsior, launches by 2340 as the result of this effort. It features the now-standard glowing warp nacelles ubiquitous in 24th century starship design, while once-typical ball-type phaser banks have now been replaced by more flexible and capable phaser arrays.
• Having mastered the art of designing and constructing modular starships, Starfleet begins building fleets of specialized vessels, such as the California-class, for specific purposes — such as engineering, emergency management, and medical — to be deployed across the Federation.
• By the early 2360s, the Ambassador-class design has evolved into the enormous Galaxy-class starship, as best exemplified by one of the most iconic Starfleet vessels of all time, the USS Enterprise NCC-1701-D. At 42 decks tall, the Galaxy-class is the most advanced machine ever built my humankind up to that point.
• With the emergence of the Borg threat in 2365, followed by the loss of 39 starships to a single Borg cube in 2367, Starfleet R&D once again turns to radical approaches to counter their new nemesis. This results in the USS Defiant, a new class of starship dedicated entirely to combat, with an overpowered engine, robust weapons array, and minimal facilities for either science or medicine. The Defiant is formally launched in 2370, and deployed to Deep Space Nine to protect the Bajoran wormhole against the Dominion.
• By 2370, Starfleet launches the Intrepid-class starship, a science vessel designed for deep space exploration and outfitted with some of Starfleet's most advanced technologies, including prototype variable-geometry nacelle pylons, intended to counteract the potentially destructive nature of warpfields on subspace as discovered earlier in the year.
• Only shortly thereafter, the Sovereign-class starship is introduced in the early 2370s as a replacement for the aging Galaxy-class, and one capable of defending itself better. The Sovereign-class immediately superseded the Intrepid-class as the most advanced in the fleet, with a new nacelle design that rendered the variable-geometry pylons unnecessary.
• The success of the Defiant in early engagements against the Dominion leads to Starfleet pursuing its combat-forward nature, while settling on larger space-frames to counter the Defiant's propensity for tearing itself apart. These combat-oriented development projects result in compact, battle-ready designs like the Akira-class, Steamrunner-class, and Saber-class, each capable of being quickly crewed and deployed, all of which helped to defend Earth against the incursion of the Borg in the Battle of Sector 001 in 2373.
• In addition to the Defiant and related projects, Starfleet also develops the prototype Prometheus-class starship, utilizing an advanced multi-vector attack mode in which the starship split into three smaller vessels. The Prometheus is launched in late 2373, following the Battle of Sector 001.
• By the end of the Dominion War in 2375, Starfleet has taken incredible losses. Century-old designs like the Miranda and Excelsior-class starships are being refit to participate in the fighting, as with the USS Lakota, with their old 2270s and 2280s-era nacelles being upgraded to generate more power — thus gaining glowing warp coil grills, unlike their earlier predecessors.
• Between 2375–2400, Starfleet focuses on rebuilding its ruined fleets. With limited resources available in the wake of the quadrant-wide Dominion War, tried-and-true designs and methodologies are designated for refurbishment and reuse.
• In 2379, Starfleet launched the Luna-class starship as part of a consolidated effort to return to their principal objective of exploration and discovery. The Luna-class starship built on technologies developed for vessels like the Akira and Sovereign-class starships during the Dominion War, now putting them to use for peaceful purposes instead.
• Following the return of the USS Voyager to Earth in 2378, Starfleet began research and development once again on advanced propulsion technologies. This resulted in the prototype USS Protostar as a test-bed for the protostar drive. The class was ordered into full production in 2384.
• The Odyssey-class starship is launched in 2385, a decade after the end of the Dominion War. One of the largest ships ever constructed by Starfleet, the Odyssey-class builds on the many successes of the venerable Galaxy and Sovereign-class heavy cruisers.
• In addition to the lack of available resources following the Dominion War, the end of the conflict sees a desire by Starfleet and its personnel to return to Starfleet's glory days of exploration. To accommodate scarce equipment, older ships are cannibalized and refurbished into "old-new" designs based heavily on successful designs of the past, refreshed for service in the 24th and 25th centuries. Notable among these are the Excelsior II-class starship, the Constitution III-class, and the Sagan-class.
• By 2399, Starfleet has introduced the Inquiry-class starship, described as "the fastest and most tactically-capable ships in the Federation fleet."

This hypothesis is predicated on the fact that the explicit intent behind Zefram Cochrane, whether or not this has been successfully communicated on screen, is that he is the inventor of warp drive as we commonly know it in Star Trek, and that prior to his invention, the existing warp-capable galactic powers were utilizing some other means of generating warp fields.

Citing Ron D. Moore after First Contact was released,

"Certainly Cochrane is credited with the invention of warp drive as we know it in Trek, so we could assume that the Vulcans were using something else – possibly a variant of the contained singularity used by the Romulans. That might have been a much more dangerous and inefficient technology which was quickly abandoned by most of the galaxy when Cochrane's system was introduced."

Now, let's look at some Vulcan ships...

The pre-Cochrane D'Vahl-type starship: This is the type of starship that rescued the survivors of the Vulcan survey ship in Carbon Creek. It is also the type of ship that patrolled above the Forge on Vulcan (as seen in the image). These are warp capable but possess what look like only rudimentary nacelles. The glowing bits look more like impulse engines to me.

The pre-Cochrane Vulcan survey ship: Similar in design to the D'Vahl, with no obvious warp nacelles despite being warp capable.

The pre-Cochrane T'plana-Hath: this ship again possesses no obvious nacelles of any kind, and has what appear to be some kind of engine bells or drive units that angle downward for landing.

The post-Cochrane Vahklas-type starship: this is the only Vulcan starship I can think of that possesses what could be argued to be more typical warp nacelles instead of an annular drive. Obviously the ring shape is hinted at, but it looks like it's only an aesthetic choice here.

When the NX-01 Enterprise encounters a Vahklas-type ship in 2151, T'Pol states that they had not been in use for "a long time."

My hypothesis is that the Vahklas-type represents the first (or one of the earliest) Vulcan attempts at adapting the Cochrane-style warp drive to their own vessels, perhaps utilizing the partial ring shape to increase efficiency over Cochrane's nacelle design, which they consider inefficient.

I think it was this continued lack of preferred efficiency that led the Vulcans to continue working on adapting Cochrane's design for their own purposes, eventually leading to the development of the annular warp drive, possibly sometime between the 2070s and 2100. Definitely prior to the dedication of the Warp Five Complex in 2119.

Presumably, the Vulcans came to the humans with their design if only to show them how their warp drive had ultimately proven inefficient and could be, at least by Vulcan standards, drastically improved upon. This led to the development, perhaps not by United Earth Starfleet or UESPA, of the USS Enterprise XCV-330, the only known human attempt at annular warp drive design.

Ultimately, the annular warp drive proves highly efficient but also highly resistant to course corrections and maneuverability. While this trade off is acceptable to the Vulcans, who do not place an emphasis on exploration, it is antithetical to the very purpose of Starfleet. The design is thus quickly abandoned as a technological dead-end, in favor of the homegrown, For Humans, By Humans nacelle design originated by Dr. Cochrane.

Vulcans, meanwhile, continue to favor the annular warp drive for their own ships, and the High Command quickly adopts it.

This leads to the development of the Suurok-class starship by at least 2136 (when Captain Vanik says he took command of the Ti'Mur in ENT S1E8 Cold Front).

The success of the Suurok-class leads to the further development of the D'kyr-type starship.

Throughout the 2100s, Vulcan starships of all types are designed with the annular warp drive, including ships as small as shuttles and transports.

Over the next century, there would be refinements and adjustments of the annular warp drive design, leading to some slightly different but still ultimately hoop-shaped implementations, as in the 23rd century T'plana-type starship and the early 24th century Apollo-class starship as exemplified by the starship T'Pau in TNG Unification I/II.

But ultimately, the ring-shaped annular drive as developed in the 22nd century remains the favorite, lasting well into the 24th century largely unchanged, although with the addition of what appear to be some slightly more traditional nacelle-like elements, as seen on the Sh'vhal-type starship on Lower Decks.

Thanks for coming to my TED Talk.